SOCIAL CONTROL:

All the means of keeping a society "on track"; the means of ensuring that people generally behave in expected and approved ways.

DEVIANCE:

Behavior that violates significant social norms and is disapproved by large numbers of people as a result.

NEGATIVE SANCTIONS:

Punishments or other non-supportive behaviors which serve to discourage disapproved behavior.

POSITIVE SANCTIONS:

Rewards or affirmations which serve to support desired behavior.

Prescribed: Behavior which is strongly expected and may take on moral overtones. Non-conformity is seen as deviance.

Preferred: Where options are allowed, these behaviors are seen as the better choice and are given more positive sanctions.

Permitted: Where options are allowed, these are seen as the less preferred choice and may have overtones of deviance but are not prohibited. Often, they are just "ignored".

Proscribed: Behaviors which are forbidden or are seen as strongly deviant or evoke strong stigma or negative sanctions.

Maintains social order by reinforcing social values through rewarding people who follow norms and punishing those who deviate from accepted norms (especially when people would rather break the norms). Makes conformity seem more desirable. (Durkheim)

Helps to clarify social norms and indicates limits which society will tolerate.

Creates solidarity among the "conformers" when they see "non-conformers" punished; reaction against deviance reaffirms existing values.

Points to "pressure spots" and problems in the society which call for attention. Often is the source of social change.

Provides a "safety valve" to deflect pressure points which reduces the push to change.

Disrupts the social order, causes tensions and conflicts which make life difficult.

Diverts resources (e.g. crime control) which could be used more productively.

Undermines trust. Social relationships are based on assumptions that people will follow through on agreements.

If ignored or unpunished, undermines other people's will to conform.

Aberrant behavior -- accepts societal norms but breaks them for personal gain (extra marital sex, stealing from employer)

Non-conforming behavior --deliberately breaks rules (gay teacher who "comes out")

Socially approved institutionalized evasion (within a subgroup) (having a mistress in many societies; tax evasion in Brazil)

Socially disapproved behavior as a general norm (murder; drug dealing)

Inability to conform because of diminished capacity

VS

Failure to conform ("act of will")

(Edwin Sutherland)

Deviance is learned through interaction with other people as in any other type of socialization.

Differential Association: Social relationships with a particular type of people (i.e. "bad crowd", "crime family") whose norms and values are deviant from "normal" society.

Other Factors:

+ Age: Childhood and adolescence are most formative

+ Intensity: social and psychological impact of primary relationships;

+ Ratio of significant deviant experiences is greater than of non-deviant experiences.

Individual behavior is a result of rational choice which balances the consequences of doing or not doing any behavior.

A person will choose to do one thing as opposed to another if the gains are greater and the losses are less than doing something else.

Benefits of commiting a crime (or other deviant act) include material gain, emotional gratification, peer approval, revenge, etc.

Costs of commiting deviant act include risk of getting caught and punished, disapproval of others, pangs of conscience, retaliation.

Benefits of not committing deviant act include preserving good conscience, good reputation, acceptance into socially desireable statuses, etc.

Costs of not commiting deviant act include not having material gain, peer disaproval, not having emotional outlet, etc.

Benefits of not commiting crime are in the future; benefits of commiting crime are immediate.

CONTROL THEORY:

Deviance is the outcome of a failure of social control. Assumes that deviancy, nor conformity, should be taken for granted. Deviant acts may be personally rewarding for individuals; people conform because of social pressure. The greater are the bonds between people (i.e. the greater is the social solidarity), the greater will be the likelihood of conformity.Elements of Strong Bonds (Travis Hirschi)

Attachments: Significant links to other people (especially affection, respect, and willingness to look out for the interests of others.

Commitment: "Stake" or set of interests that people have in society: "What's in it for me?"

Involvement: Continued participation in non-deviant activities (work, family, school)

Belief: Allegiance to societal norms, values and moral code re: what is right and wrong.

Individual deviance VS Group deviance

Individual behavior is a result of rational choice which balances the consequences of doing or not doing any behavior.

A person will choose to do one thing as opposed to another if the gains are greater and the losses are less than doing something else.

Benefits of committing a crime (or other deviant act) include material gain, emotional gratification, peer approval, revenge, etc.

Costs of committing deviant act include risk of getting caught and punished, disapproval of others, pangs of conscience, retaliation.

Benefits of not committing deviant act include preserving good conscience, good reputation, acceptance into socially desirable statuses, etc.

Costs of not committing deviant act include not having material gain, peer disapproval, not having emotional outlet, etc.

Benefits of not committing crime are in the future; benefits of committing crime are immediate.

LABELING THEORY

(Howard Becker, Edwin Lemert)

Process by which some people successfully define others as deviant. Based on interactionist theory.

Stigma: mark of social disgrace that sets the deviant apart from those who consider themselves as "normal".

Primary Deviance: Non-conformity that is temporary, exploratory, trivial or easily concealed.

Secondary Deviance: Persistent non-conformity by person who has accepted the deviant label as applying to self, especially when reinforced by new deviant associations.

STRUCTURAL STRAIN THEORY

(Robert Merton)

Deviance is the outcome of social strains which put pressure on people to deviate, especially under conditions of

anomie (from Durkheim): confusion in the individual and society when social norms are weak, absent or conflicting.

Responses to structural strain:

Conformity: approved goals and means for achieving them are accepted by people.

Inovation: People accept the goals but use disapproved means to achieve them;

Ritualism: People accept the means but give up on the ends, substituting means for ends (bureaucrat);

Retreatism: People give up on both the ends and the means to achieve them (street people).

Rebellion: People give up on both the goals and the means to achieve them and substitute others in their place (revolutionary; cult member.

DEVIANT SUBCULTURES

(Cloward and Ohlin)

Criminal deviance results not only from limited legitimate opportunity but also from illegitimate opportunity structures where criminal activities are readily accessible.

Deviant (including criminal or conflict) subcultures provide not only values and norms upholding deviance as an acceptable way of life, but also provide the knowledge, skills and other resources people need to succeed in unconventional ways.

Conflict subcultures: violence is used as expression of frustration and desire for respect;

Retreatist subcultures: support given for "dropping out" through alcohol or other drugs.

DEVIANT SUBCULTURES

(Walter Miller)

Deviant subcultures have six focal concerns:

1. Toughness: value placed on physical size, strength, and athletic ability;

2. Trouble: prestige from conflicts with police, teachers, etc;

3. Smartness: ability to succeed on the streets, to out-smart or to "con" others;

4. Excitement: search for thrills, risk or danger;

5. Fate: a sense that people lack control over their own lives; and

6. Autonomy: a desire for freedom as expressed through resentment toward authority and authority figures.

TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION

Denial of responsibility

Denying the injury

Denial of the victim (who deserves what s/he got)

Condemnation of authorities (who are corrupt or biased)

Appeal to higher principles or authorities