ADAPTATION. Refers to the ability of a sociocultural system to change with the demands of a changing physical or social environment. The process by which cultural elements undergo change in form and/or function in response to change in other parts of the system.
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION. Government programs intended to assure minorities and women of equal hiring or admission opportunities.
AGE STRUCTURE. The relative proportions of different age categories in a population.
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION. Groups or institutions within which processes of socialization take place
ALIENATION. The sense that we have lost control over social institutions that we have created. Often characterized as estrangement from the self and from the society as a whole. Marx believed that general alienation was rooted in the loss of control on the part of workers over the nature of the labor task, and over the products of their labor.
ANTHROPOLOGY. A social science, closely linked to sociology, which concentrates (though not exclusively) on the study of traditional cultures--particularly hunting and gathering and horticultural societies--and the evolution of the human species.
ASCRIBED STATUS. A social position that is given at birth (such as race or sex).
ASSIMILATION. A minority group's internalization of the values and norms of the dominant culture.
AUTHORITY. Power that is attached to a position that others perceive as legitimate.
BUREAUCRACY. A formal organization
marked by a clear hierarchy of authority, the existence of written rules of
procedure, staffed by full-time salaried officials, and striving for the efficient
attainment of organizational goals.
CASTE. A closed form of stratification in which an individual's status is determined by birth and cannot be changed.
CAUSATION. A 'cause and effect' relationship exists wherever a change in one variable (the independent variable) induces change in another (the dependent variable). Causal factors in sociology include individual motivation as well as many external influences on human behavior that often go unrecognized.
CITIZEN. A member of a state, having both rights and duties associated with that membership.
CLAN. A broad extended kin group found in many preindustrial societies.
CLASS. Most sociologists use the term to refer to socioeconomic differences between groups of individuals which create differences in their life chances and power.
CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS. An objective awareness of the class system, including the common interests of people within your class.
COLLECTIVE ACTION. Social action undertaken in a relatively spontaneous way by a large number of people.
COLONIALISM. The process whereby nations establish their political and economic rule over less powerful nations.
COMMUNITY. A group of people who share a common sense of identity and interact with one another on a sustained basis.
CONFLICT. A clash of interest (sometimes escalating to active struggle) between individuals, groups or society.
CONFORMITY. Human behavior which follows the established norms of a group or society. The bulk of human behavior is of a conforming nature as people accept and internalize the values of their culture or subculture
CONGLOMERATES. Large corporations made up of separate companies producing or trading in a variety of different products and services. Conglomerates are usually the result of mergers between companies or take-overs of one firm by another.
CONSENSUS. Agreement on basic social values by the members of a group or society.
CONTRADICTION. Marx's term to refer to mutually antagonistic tendencies within institutions or the broader society such as those between profit and competition within capitalism.
CONTRADICTORY CLASS LOCATIONS. Positions in the class structure which share characteristics of the class positions both above and below them--the classic position would be that of a foreman in a factory or a department chair in academe.
CORE COUNTRIES. The advanced industrial societies of America, Western Europe and Japan are often referred to as core countries because of their central position on the world stage (see also PERIPHERY COUNTRIES and SEMI-PERIPHERY COUNTRIES).
CORPORATIONS. A legally recognized organization set up for profit--the powers and liabilities of the organization are legally separate from the owners or the employees.
CORRELATION. The relationship between two variables in which they vary together--say a correlation between the income of parents and reading ability among primary school children. Statistical correlation can vary from -1 to 1 (a 0 indicates no correlation between the variables). A positive correlation between two variables exists where a high score on one is associated with a high score on the other. A negative correlation is where a high score on one variable is associated with a low score on the other.
CULTURAL LAG. A dysfunction in the sociocultural system caused by change occurring in one part of the system and the failure of another part of that system to adjust to the change. An example would be married women engaged in outside employment and the continuance of the domestic division of labor.
CULTURAL MATERIALISM. A macro-social theory that attempts to account for the similarities and differences between sociocultural systems by focusing on the environmental constraints to which human action is subject.
CULTURAL PLURALISM. The more or less peaceful coexistence of multiple subcultures within a given society.
CULTURAL TRANSMISSION. The socialization process whereby the norms and values of the group are internalized by individuals.
CULTURAL UNIVERSALS. Values or practices shared by all human cultures.
CULTURE. The values, norms and material goods shared by a given group. Your instructor prefers to restrict the term to refer to symbolic aspects (values and norms).
CULTURE OF POVERTY. The view that the poor have a different value system that contribute to their poverty.
DEMOCRACY. A form of government that recognizes the citizen as having the right to participate in political decision-making, or to elect representatives to government bodies.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION. A stabilization of population level in industrial society once a certain level of economic prosperity has been reached. Population is thought to stabilize because of economic incentives on families to limit the number of children.
DEMOGRAPHY. The scientific study of human population--including size, growth, movement, density, and composition.
DEVIANCE. Behaviors which do not conform to significant norms held by most of the members of a group or society. What is regarded as 'deviant' is highly variable across societies.
DEVIANT SUBCULTURE. A subculture which has values and norms which differ substantially from those of the majority in a society.
DIALECTICAL. An interpretation of change emphasizing the clash of opposing interests and the resulting struggle as the engine of social transformation.
DIFFERENTIATION. The development of increasing complexity and division of labor within sociocultural systems.
DIFFUSION. The spread of cultural traits from one sociocultural system to another.
DISCRIMINATION. The denial of equal access to social resources to people on the basis of their group membership.
DIVISION OF LABOR. The specialization of work tasks or occupations. All societies have some division of labor based on age and sex. But with the development of industrialism the division of labor becomes far more complex which affects many parts of the sociocultural system.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE. Violent behavior directed by one member of a household against another.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE. Comte and Durkheim both refer to the fact that in societies with a high division of labor individuals depend more on others to produce most of the goods they need to sustain their lives.
EDUCATION. The transmission of knowledge to members of society. The knowledge passed on is in the form of technical and cultural knowledge, technical and social skills, as well as the norms and values of the society.
EDUCATION SYSTEM. The system of formalized transmission of knowledge and values operating within a given society.
EGALITARIAN FAMILY. Family arrangement in which power is shared more-or-less equally by both the wife and the husband.
EMIGRATION. The movement of people out of their native land to other countries.
ENDOGAMY. A system in which an individual may only marry within the same social category or group.
ENTREPRENEUR. A person who organizes and manages a business firm.
ENTROPY. The entropy law or the second law of thermodynamics--energy can only be transformed in one direction, from ordered to disordered. Entropy is also another name for pollution.
ENVIRONMENT. The physical, biological and chemical restraints to which action is subject.
ETHNICITY. An ethnic group is one of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups around them.
ETHNOCENTRISM. The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards one's own culture.
EXOGAMY. A system in which an individual may only marry outside their social category or group.
EXPERIMENT. A research method in which variables can be analyzed under carefully controlled conditions--usually within an artificial situation constructed by the researcher.
EXTENDED FAMILY. A family group consisting of more than two generations of the same kinship line living either within the same household or, more usually in the west, very close to one another.
FAMILY OF ORIENTATION. The family into which an individual is born.
FAMILY OF PROCREATION. The family we create through marriage.
FEMINISM. Advocacy of the social equality of the sexes.
FERTILITY. The average number of liveborn children produced by women of childbearing age in a particular society.
FETISHISM. Obsessive attachment or sexual desire directed toward an object.
FORCES OF PRODUCTION. Marx's term to refer to the technology used to produce economic goods in a society.
FORDISM. The assembly line system of production pioneered by Henry Ford. It should be pointed out that not all industrial processes are based on the assembly line.
FUNCTIONS. The ways in which a sociocultural trait contributes toward the maintenance or adaptation of the entire sociocultural system.
FUNCTIONALISM. A theoretical perspective that focuses on the way various parts of the social system contribute to the continuity of society as well as the affect the various parts have on one another.
FUNDAMENTALISM. A commitment to, and a belief in, the literal meanings of scriptural texts.
GEMEINSCHAFT. According to Toennies, social organization based on close and personal ties and traditional norms and values.
GENDER. Socially defined behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex.
GENOCIDE. The systematic, planned annihilation of an ethnic, racial or political group.
GENTRIFICATION. The renovation of poor and working class urban neighborhoods and the displacement of the original residents.
GESELLSCHAFT. According to Toennies, social organization based on loose personal ties, self interest, rationalization, and impersonality.
GHETTO. A section of a city occupied predominantly by members of a single racial or ethnic group, usually because of social or economic pressure.
GLOBALIZATION. The development of extensive worldwide patterns of economic relationships between nations.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP). The total value of all goods and services produced within the boundaries of a particular country in any given year. In America, for example, this measure includes the value of the production of Japanese firms within the U.S. but not goods produced by U.S. firms on Japanese soil. GDP is now the preferred measure of the wealth of nations.
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP). The total value of all goods and services produced by nationals of a particular country in any given year. In America, for example, this measure did not include the value of the production of Japanese firms within the U.S. but did include the value of goods and services produced by U.S. firms on Japanese soil. GDP is now the preferred measure of the wealth of nations, though GNP is often used in historical comparison.
GUERRILLA MOVEMENT. A non-government
military organization that engages in fighting or harassment.
HIGHER EDUCATION. Usually refers to education beyond high school level, often in colleges or universities.
HIGH-TRUST SYSTEMS. Work settings in which individuals have a great deal of autonomy and control.
HISTORICAL MATERIALISM. Marx's interpretation that processes of social change are determined primarily (but not exclusively) by economic factors.
HOUSEWORK (DOMESTIC LABOR). Unpaid work carried on in and around the home such as cooking, cleaning and shopping. Studies show that the bulk of this labor is carried out by women despite the predominance of dual-income families.
HYPOTHESIS. A tentative statement
about a given state of affairs that predicts a relationship between the variables,
usually put forward as a basis for empirical testing.
IDEAL TYPE. Weber's construct of a 'pure type', constructed
by emphasizing logical or consistent traits of a given social item.
The traits are defining ones, not necessarily desirable ones. Ideal types
do not exist anywhere in reality, rather they are "measures" that we can use
in comparing social phenomena. One example is Weber's ideal type of bureaucratic
organization (which are anything but desirable). More widely used (and understood)
examples would include "ideal democracy" and "ideal capitalism."
IDEOLOGY. Shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify and support the interests of a particular group or organizations.
IMMIGRATION The settlement of people into a country in which they were not born.
IMPERIALISM. The establishing of colonial empires in which domination is both political and economic.
INCOME. Payment of wages usually earned from work or investments.
INDUSTRIALIZATION The continual expanding application of sophisticated technology designed to efficiently draw energy and raw materials out of the environment and fashion them for human use.
INFORMAL RELATIONS. Relations in organizations developed on the basis of personal connections. These ties are often used to pursue organizational goals instead of the formally recognized procedures.
INFRASTRUCTURE. The interface between a sociocultural system and its environment. In sociocultural materialism it contains the principle mechanism by which society regulates the amount and type of energy from the environment.
IN-GROUP. A social group an individual belongs to and identifies with.
INNER CITY. The areas composing the central neighborhoods of industrial cities which are subject to dilapidation and decay, the more affluent residents having moved to outlying areas.
INSTITUTIONAL CAPITALISM. A condition that exists when large institutions such as pension plans, banks, and insurance companies hold large shares of capitalistic enterprises.
INSTITUTIONAL DISCRIMINATION. Accepted social arrangements that place minority groups at a disadvantage.
INSTITUTIONAL RACISM. Accepted social arrangements that exclude on the basis of race.
INSURRECTION An organized revolt against civil authority in an attempt to replace that authority with another.
INTERNAL COLONIALISM. The economic exploitation of a group within a society whereby their labor is sold cheap and they are made to pay dear for products and services.
INTEREST GROUPS. Groups organized to pursue specific interests in the political arena. The interests of these groups is often economic, but many are organized around moral concerns. The major activity of interest groups is lobbying the members of legislative bodies (Congress as well as state legislators), contributing vast sums to political campaigns, and increasingly running their own propaganda campaigns to affect the legislative process.
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR. The interdependence of countries which trade on global markets.
INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY. Movement up or down the social hierarchy from one generation to another.
LAISSEZ-FAIRE. One of the main doctrines of capitalism
that asserts that government should not interfere with commerce.
LATENT FUNCTIONS. The unintended consequences of one part of a sociocultural system. For example, the reform of big city political machines had a lot of unintended consequences on the governability of American cities (see also MANIFEST FUNCTION).
LAW. A written rule established by a political authority and backed by government.
LEGITIMACY. The generally held belief that a particular social institution is just and valid.
LEGITIMATION CRISIS. The lack of sufficient commitment on the part of members to a particular social institution for that organization to function effectively. Governments that lack legitimation often rely on repression to continue their rule (which is very inefficient). Legitimation crisis in other institutions produce parallel responses on the part of administration.
LIBERAL DEMOCRACY. Refers to those societies based on some form of democracy coupled with capitalism.
LIFE EXPECTANCY. The number of years a newborn in a particular society can expect to live. Also refers to the number of further years which people at any given age can, on average, expect to live.
LIFESTYLE CHANGES. Often called for when treating chronic disease. Rather than curing the disease, the patient makes changes in lifestyle (nutrition, exercise, smoking sessation, weight reduction, alleviating stress) that help to control the disease process.
LIFE-SPAN. The maximum length of life that is biologically possible for a member of a given species.
LITERACY. The ability of individuals
to read and write.
MANAGERIAL CAPITALISM. A change in the control of capitalist enterprises from owners (which predominated in Marx's day) to control by (very well) salaried managers.
MANIFEST FUNCTION. The intended and known consequences of one part of a sociocultural system. For example, the reform of big city political machines had the intended consequence of limiting (relatively) corruption by city officials (see also LATENT FUNCTION).
MARXISM. Contemporary social theory deriving its main elements from Marx's ideas. Marxist theory strongly emphasizes class struggle and material causation.
MASCULINITY. The characteristic forms of behavior expected of men in any given culture.
MASS MEDIA. Forms of communication designed to reach a vast audience without any personal contact between the senders and receivers. Examples would include newspapers, magazines, video recordings, radio and television
MATERIALISM. The view that 'material conditions' (usually economic and technological factors) have the central role in determining social change.
MATRIARCHY. Social organization in which females dominate males.
MEAN. A statistical measure of 'central tendency' or average based on dividing a total by the number of individual cases involved. The mean is very sensitive to extreme scores. For example, the average life expectancy for people in a society with high infant mortality would be a misleading measure (see also MEDIAN).
MEANS OF PRODUCTION. Marx's term referring to the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society. Marx included in this concept both technology and the social relations among the producers (based on the ownership of that technology).
MECHANIZATION. The use of machinery to replace human labor.
MEDIAN. The number that falls halfway in a range of numbers--the score below which are half the scores and above which are the other half. The median is a way of calculating 'central tendency' which is sometimes more useful than calculating a mean (particularly when many extreme scores are in the distribution).
MEGALOPOLIS. A vast unbroken urban region consisting of two or more central cities connected by their surrounding suburbs.
MICROSOCIOLOGY. The study of small scale patterns of human interaction and behavior within specific settings.
MIDDLE CLASS. A social class broadly defined occupationally as those working in white-collar and lower managerial occupations; is sometimes defined by reference to income levels or subjective identification of the participants in the study.
MIGRATION. The movement of people from one country or region to another in order to settle permanently.
MILITARY RULE. Government by military leaders.
MINORITY GROUP (OR ETHNIC MINORITY). A group of people who are defined on the basis of their ethnicity or race. Because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, they are singled out for unequal treatment within a society.
MIXED ECONOMY. Economies which have major elements of both capitalism and socialism (such as many economies of Europe).
MODE OF PRODUCTION. The technology and the practices employed for expanding or limiting basic subsistence production, especially the production of food and other forms of energy. Examples would include the technology of subsistence, technological/environmental relationships, and work patterns.
MODERNIZATION. The process of general social change brought about by the transition from an agrarian to an industrial mode of production.
MONOPOLY. A situation in which a single producer dominates in a given industry or market (see also OLIGOPOLY).
MORES. Norms that have strong moral significance, violation of which cause strong social reaction (murder, sexual molestation of children).
MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES.
A business corporation that operates in two or more countries--also sometimes
referred to as a "transnational."
NATION-STATE. The modern state in which a government
has sovereign power within a defined territorial area, and the mass of the
population are citizens.
NEO-COLONIALISM. The informal dominance of some nations over others by means of unequal conditions of economic exchange (as between industrial and Third World countries)..
NORMS. Rules and expectations of conduct which either prescribes a given type of behavior, or forbids it.
NUCLEAR FAMILY. A basic family group consisting of married female and male parents and dependent children, living away from other relatives.
ORGANIZATION. A large group of individuals that
is formally organized for the purpose of attaining a goal.
OLIGARCHY. Rule by a few within an organization or in the society as a whole.
OLIGOPOLY. A situation in which
a small number of firms dominate a given industry or market. When four or
fewer firms supply fifty percent or more of a given market the effects of
oligopoly become apparent. These effects are reputed to be a rise in price
and a lowering of quality because of the decline of competition (see also
MONOPOLY)
PATRIARCHY. Social organization that structures the dominance of men over women.
PEASANTS. People in agrarian societies who produce food from the land, using traditional farming methods of plow and animal power. Farm workers in agrarian societies.
PEER GROUP. A friendship group with common interests and position composed of individuals of similar age.
PERIPHERY COUNTRIES. The term refers to countries which have a marginal role in the world economy and are dependent on 'core' countries in their trading relationships (see also CORE COUNTRIES and SEMI-PERIPHERY COUNTRIES).
PLURALIST THEORY. An analysis of politics emphasizing the role of diverse and competing interest groups in preventing too much power being accumulated in the hands of political and economic elites.
POLITICS. Attempts to influence governmental activities.
POLITICAL PARTY. An organization of people with similar interests and attitudes established with the aim of achieving legitimate control of government and using that power to pursue a specific program.
POSITIVISM. A philosophical position according to which there are close ties between the social and natural sciences, which share a common logical framework.
POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETY. A society based on the production of services and information rather than material goods. A notion advocated by those who believe that the industrial order is passing.
POWER. The ability to achieve aims or further the interests you hold even when opposed by others.
POWER ELITE. According to C. Wright Mills the power elite are men in the highest positions of government, corporations and the military who hold enormous power in modern industrial societies.
PREJUDICE. The holding of unfounded ideas about a group, ideas that are resistant to change.
PRESTIGE. Social respect accorded to an individual or group because of the status of their position.
PRIMARY GROUP. A typically small group of individuals standing in an enduring personal relationship to one another--examples would include parents, spouse, or close friends (see also SECONDARY GROUP).
PRIMARY GROUP STRUCTURE. A term used in sociocultural materialism to refer to structural groups in which members tend to interact on an intimate basis. They perform many functions such as regulating production, reproduction, socialization, education, and enforcing social discipline. Examples include family, community, voluntary organizations, and friendship networks.
PRIMARY LABOR MARKET. The term refers to the economic position of individuals engaged in occupations that provide secure jobs, and good benefits and working conditions (see also SECONDARY LABOR MARKET).
PRIMARY SECTOR. That part of a modern economy based on the extraction of natural resources directly from the natural environment--includes such areas as mining and agricultural production.
PROFANE. Elements which belong to the ordinary everyday world rather than the supernatural (see also SACRED).
PROFESSIONS. Occupations requiring extensive educational qualifications, with high social prestige, subject to codes of conduct laid down by central bodies (or professional associations).
PUBLIC HEALTH CARE. Government
funded health-care services available to all members of the population.
RACISM. The attributing of characteristics of inferiority
to a particular racial category. Racism is a specific form of prejudice focused
on race.
RATIONALIZATION. Weber's concept to refer to the process by which modes of precise calculation based on observation and reason increasingly dominate the social world. Rationalization is a habit of thought that replaces tradition, emotion, and values as motivators of human conduct. Bureaucracy is a particular case of rationalization applied to human social organization
RECIPROCITY. A system of the exchange of goods based on social ties.
RELATIVE DEPRIVATION. A perceived disadvantage in social or economic standing based on a comparison to others in a society.
RELATIVE POVERTY. Poverty defined by reference to the living standards of the majority in any given society.
RELIGION. A set of beliefs involving symbols regarded as sacred, together with ritual practices in which members of the community engage.
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY. Based on the existence of two or more political parties, in which voters democratically elect politicians to represent their interests.
RESEARCH METHODS. The diverse strategies used to gather empirical (factual) material in a systematic way.
RESOCIALIZATION. The relearning of cultural norms and values by mature individuals usually in the context of a total institution.
REVOLUTION. A process of change involving the mobilizing of a mass social movement in order to radically transform the society
RITES OF PASSAGE. Communal rituals that mark the transition from one status to another (such as a confirmation or a wedding ceremony).
RITUAL. Formalized ceremonial behavior in which the members of a group or community regularly engage.
SAMPLING. Taking a small representative part of a population
for purposes of drawing inferences from the analysis of the sample characteristics
to the population as a whole.
SANCTION. A reward for conformity or a punishment for nonconformity that reinforces socially approved forms of behavior.
SCIENCE. The application of systematic methods of observation and careful logical analysis; the term also refers to the body of knowledge produced by the use of the scientific method.
SECOND WORLD. Formerly communist industrial societies of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (see also FIRST WORLD and THIRD WORLD).
SECONDARY GROUP. A group of individuals who do not know each other on a personal level interacting in pursuit of a goal (see also PRIMARY GROUP).
SECONDARY GROUP STRUCTURE. A term used in sociocultural materialism to refer to structural groups in which members tend to interact without any emotional commitment to one another. These organizations are coordinated through bureaucracies. They perform many functions such as regulating production, reproduction, socialization, education, and enforcing social discipline. Examples include governments, parties, military, corporations, educational institutions, media, service and welfare organizations, and professional and labor organizations (see also STRUCTURE, and PRIMARY GROUP STRUCTURE).
SECONDARY LABOR MARKET. Refers to the economic position of individuals engaged in occupations that provide insecure jobs, poor benefits and conditions of work (see also PRIMARY LABOR MARKET).
SECULARIZATION. A process of decline in the social influence of religion (see also RATIONALIZATION).
SELF (or SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS). The individual's awareness of being a distinct social identity, a person separate from others. Human beings are not born with self-consciousness, but acquire an awareness of self as a result of early socialization.
SEMI-PERIPHERY COUNTRIES. Countries that are in the initial stages of industrialism which provide labor and raw materials to the core countries (see also CORE COUNTRIES, and PERIPHERY COUNTRIES).
SEX ROLE. The gender specific role behavior that a person learns as a member of a particular society.
SEX STRATIFICATION. The ranking and differential reward system of the sexes.
SEXISM. Beliefs which hold one sex superior to the other thereby justifying sexual inequalities.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT. The making of persistent unwanted sexual advances by one individual towards another.
SOCIAL CHANGE. Alteration in social structures or culture over time.
SOCIAL DARWINISM. An early and now largely discredited view of social evolution emphasizing the importance of "survival of the fittest" or struggle between individuals, groups, or societies as the motor of development. Social Darwinism became widely popular and was often used to justify existing inequalities.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION. A structural condition of society caused by rapid change in social institutions, norms, and values.
SOCIAL EVOLUTION. Theories of social change which generally hold that human societies move from simple to complex forms of organization.
SOCIAL FORCES. The term refers to the fact that society and social organizations exert an influence on individual human behavior.
SOCIAL GROUPS. Two or more individuals who interact in systematic ways with one another and share a high degree of common identity. Groups may range in size from dyads to large-scale societies.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS. Major structural entitities in sociocultural systems that address a basic need of the system. Institutions involve fixed modes of behavior backed by strong norms and sanctions that tend to be followed by most members of a society.
SOCIAL MOBILITY. Movement between different social positions within a stratification system
SOCIAL MOVEMENT. A large grouping of people who are organized to bring about, or to block, a a change in the sociocultural system.
SOCIAL REPRODUCTION. The processes which perpetuate characteristics of social structure over periods of time (see also AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION).
SOCIAL ROLE. The expected patterned behavior of an individual occupying a particular status position.
SOCIALIZATION. The lifelong processes through which humans develop an awareness of social norms and values, and achieve a distinct sense of self.
SOCIETY. A society is a group of people who live in a particular territory, are subject to a common system of political authority, and share a common culture.
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION. A term used by C. Wright Mills that refers to the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions.
SOCIOLOGY. The study of human behavior and societies, giving particular emphasis to the industrialized world.
STATE. Government institutions ruling over a given territory, whose authority is backed by law and the ability to use force.
STATE SOCIETY. A society which possesses a formal apparatus of government.
STATELESS SOCIETY. A society which lacks formal institutions of government.
STATUS. A social position within a society. The term can also refer to the social honor or prestige which a particular individual or group is accorded by other members of a society.
STEREOTYPE. A rigid and inflexible image of the characteristics a group. Stereotypes attribute these characteristics to all individuals belonging to that group .
STIGMA. A symbol (or a negative social label) of disgrace that affects a person's social identity.
STRATIFICATION. The existence of structured inequalities in life chances between groups in society.
STRUCTURAL UNEMPLOYMENT. Unemployed workers whose skills and training have become "obsolete" and who have little chance of ever finding employment at comparable paying jobs.
STRUCTURE. Sociological term to refer to all human institutions, groups and organizations.
SUBCULTURE. A group within the broader society that has values, norms and lifestyle distinct from those of the majority.
SUPERSTRUCTURE. A general term used in sociocultural materialism to refer to the symbolic universe--the shared meanings, ideas, beliefs, values, and ideologies that people give to the physical and social world. The superstructure, of course, can be divided into cultural and mental components.
SURPLUS VALUE. Marx's concept for the value of an individual's labor power (calculated by the amount of value the labor contributes to the product minus the amount of money paid to the worker by the capitalist). The conventional name for this difference is profit--thus the whole capitalist system is based on "expropriating" surplus value (or stealing labor) from workers.
SURVEY. A questionnaire or interview.
SYMBOL. One item used to meaningfully represent another--as in the case of a flag which symbolizes a nation.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. A theoretical approach in sociology which focuses on social reality as constructed through the daily interaction of individuals and places strong emphasis on the role of symbols (gestures, signs, and language) as core elements of this interaction.
TAYLORISM. Also referred to as 'scientific management,'
a set of ideas developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor involving simplifying
and coordinating the actions of workers to produce maximum efficiency.
TECHNOLOGY. The application of logic, reason and knowledge to the problems of exploiting raw materials from the environment. Social technologies employ the same thought processes in addressing problems of human organization. Technology involves the creation of material instruments (such as machines) used in human interaction with nature as well as social instruments (such as bureaucracy) used in human organization (see also RATIONALIZATION)
TERTIARY SECTOR. That part of an economy that provides services (nursing homes, psychological counseling, and so forth)--engaged in by both private and government entitities.
THEORY. Summary statements of general principles which explain regularly observed events.
THIRD WORLD. Societies in which industrial production is only developed to a limited degree. Many of these societies were former colonies of industrial states. The majority of the world's population (over 70 percent) live in Third World countries (see also FIRST WORLD and SECOND WORLD).
TRANSITIONAL CLASSES. Marx's term to refer to social classes based on previous relations of production which linger on in the beginning stages a new one--such as peasants or landowners of a feudal system which has become capitalist.
UNDERCLASS. A class of individuals in mature industrial
societies situated at the bottom of the class system who have been systematically
excluded from participation in economic life. The underclass is normally
composed of people from ethnic or minority groups.
UNION. A social organization set up to represent the worker's interests in both the workplace and in the broader society as well.
UPPER CLASS. A social class roughly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have great wealth, control over businesses or hold large numbers of stocks and shares.
URBAN ECOLOGY. An analysis of urban life that examines the relationship between the city and its physical surroundings--based on an analogy with the adjustment of plants and organisms to the physical environment.
URBANIZATION. The
increasing concentration of the human population into cities.
VARIABLE. A characteristic that varies in value or
magnitude along which an object, individual or group may be categorized, such
as income or age.
VERTICAL MOBILITY. Movement up or down a social stratification system (see also STRATIFICATION).
WEALTH. Accumulated money and material possessions controlled
by an individual, group or organization.
WELFARE STATE. A government system which provides a range of human services for its citizens.
WHITE-COLLAR CRIME. Criminal activities carried out by white-collar or professional workers in the course of their jobs.
WORKING CLASS. A social class of industrial societies broadly composed of people involved in manual occupation. The bulk of these jobs are unskilled, poorly paid and provide few benefits or job security.
WORLD SYSTEM THEORY. Immanuel Wallerstein's
theoretical approach which analyzes societies in terms of their position within
global systems.